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111. Baskin DS, Widmayer MA, Browning JL, et al: Eva-

luation of delayed treatment of focal cerebral ische-

mia with three selective

k

-opioid agonists in cats.

Stroke 25:2047–2053, 1994.

112. Takahashi H, Traystman RJ, Hashimoto K, et al: Pos-

tischemic brain injury is affected stereospecifically

by pentazocine in rats. Anesth Analg 85:353–357,

1997.

113. Mayfield KP, D’Alecy LG: Delta-1 opioid agonist

acutely increases hypoxic tolerance. J Pharmacol

Exp Ther 268:683–688, 1994.

114. Bofetiado DM, Mayfield KP, D’Alecy LG: Alkaloid

d

agonist BW373U86 increases hypoxic tolerance.

Anesth Analg 82:1237–1241, 1996.

115. Lim YJ, Zheng S, Zuo Z: Morphine preconditions

Purkinje cells against cell death under in vitro simu-

lated ischemia-reperfusion conditions. Anesthesio-

logy 100:562–568, 2004.

116. Charchaflieh J, Cottrell JE, Kass IS: The effect of

fentanyl on electrophysiologic recovery of CA 1

pyramidal cells from anoxia in the rat hippocampal

slice. Anesth Analg 87:68–71, 1998.

117. Soonthon Brant V, Patel PM, Drummond JC, et al:

Fentanyl does not increase brain injury after focal

cerebral ischemia in rats. Anesth Analg 88:49–55,

1999.

118. Vankova ME, Weinger MB, Chen DY, et al: Role of

central m,

d

-

1

, and

k

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induced muscle rigidity in the rat. Anesthesiology

85:574–583, 1996.

119. Mets B: Acute dystonia after alfentanil in untreated

Parkinson’s disease. Anesth Analg 72:557–558,

1991.

120. Haber GW, Litman RS: Generalized tonic-clonic

activity after remifentanil administration. Anesth

Analg 93:1532–1533, 2001.

121. Parkinson SK, Bailey SL, Little WL, Mueller JB:

Myoclonic seizure activity with chronic high-dose

spinal opioid administration. Anesthesiology

72:743–745, 1990.

122. Gutstein HB, Rubie EA, Mansour A, et al: Opioid

effects on mitogen-activated protein kinase

signaling cascades. Anesthesiology 87:1118–1126,

1997.

123. KofkeWA, Garman RH, Janosky J, Rose ME: Opioid

neurotoxicity: Neuropathologic effects in rats of

different fentanyl congeners and the effects of hexa-

methonium-induced normotension. Anesth Analg

83:141–146, 1996.

124. Sinz EH, Kofke WA, Garman RH: Phenytoin, mida-

zolam, and naloxone protect against fentanyl-indu-

cedbraindamageinrats.AnesthAnalg91:1443–1449,

2000.

125. Kofke WA, Blissitt PA, Rao H, et al: Remifentanil-

induced cerebral blood flow effects in normal

humans: Dose and ApoE genotype. Anesth Analg

105:167–175, 2007.

126. Knaggs RD, Crighton IM, Cobby TF, et al: The pupi-

llary effects of intravenous morphine, codeine, and

tramadol in volunteers. Anesth Analg 99:108–112,

2004.

127. Larson MD, Kurz A, Sessler DI, et al: Alfentanil

blocks reflex pupillary dilation in response to

noxious stimulation but does not diminish the light

reflex. Anesthesiology 87:849–855, 1997.

128. Kurz A, Go JC, Sessler DI, et al: Alfentanil

slightly increases the sweating threshold and

markedly reduces the vasoconstriction and shi-

vering thresholds. Anesthesiology 83:293–299,

1995.

129. Ikeda T, Sessler DI, Tayefeh F, et al: Meperidine and

alfentanil do not reduce the gain or maximum

intensity of shivering. Anesthesiology 88:858–865,

1998.

130. Kurz M, Belani KG, Sessler DI, et al: Naloxone, mep­

eridine,and shivering.Anesthesiology 79:1193–1201,

1993.

131. Greif R, Laciny S, Rajek AM, et al: Neither nalbu-

phine nor atropine possess special antishivering

activity. Anesth Analg 93:620–627, 2001.

132. Tsai YC, Chu KS: A comparison of tramadol, ami-

triptyline, and meperidine for postepidural anesthe-

tic shivering in parturients. Anesth Analg

93:1288–1292, 2001.

133. Ko MC, Naughton NN: An experimental itch

model in monkeys: Characterization of intrathecal

morphine–induced scratching and antinocicep-

tion. Anesthesiology 92:795–805, 2000.

134. Cohen SE, Ratner EF, Kreitzman TR, et al: Nalbu-

phine is better than naloxone for treatment of side

effects after epidural morphine. Anesth Analg

75:747–752, 1992.

135. Dunteman E, Karanikolas M, Filos KS: Transnasal

butorphanol for the treatment of opioid-induced

pruritus unresponsive to antihistamines. J Pain

Symptom Manage 12:255–260, 1996.

136. Borgeat A, Stirnemann HR: Ondansetron is effec-

tive to treat spinal or epidural morphine–induced

pruritus. Anesthesiology 90:432–436, 1999.

137. Colbert S, O’Hanlon DM, Chambers F, Moriarty

DC: The effect of intravenous tenoxicam on pruritus

in patients receiving epidural fentanyl. Anaesthesia

54:76–80, 1999.

138. Horta ML, Morejon LC, da Cruz AW, et al: Study of

the prophylactic effect of droperidol, alizapride,

propofol and promethazine on spinal morphine-

induced pruritus. Br J Anaesth 96:796–800, 2006.

139. Jones EA, Bergasa NV: The pruritus of cholestasis

and the opioid system. JAMA 268:3359–3362,

1992.

140. Etches RC: Respiratory depression associated with

patient-controlled analgesia:A review of eight cases.

Can J Anaesth 41:125–132, 1994.

141. Zhang Z, Xu F, Zhang C, Liang X: Activation of

opioid

m

receptors in caudal medullary raphe region

inhibits the ventilatory response to hypercapnia in

anesthetized rats. Anesthesiology 107:288–297,

2007.

142. Romberg R, Sarton E, Teppema L, et al: Comparison

of morphine-6-glucuronide and morphine on res-

piratory depressant and antinociceptive responses

in wild type and

m

-opioid receptor deficient mice.

Br J Anaesth 91:862–870, 2003.

143. Freye E, Latasch L, Portoghese PS: The

d

receptor is

involved in sufentanil-induced respiratory depres-

sion—opioid subreceptors mediate different effects.

Eur J Anaesthesiol 9:457–462, 1992.

144. Selwyn DA, Raphael JH, Lambert DG, Langton JA:

Effects of morphine on human nasal cilia beat fre-

quency in vitro. Br J Anaesth 76:274–277, 1996.

145. Jaeckle KA, Digre KB, Jones CR, et al: Central neu-

rogenic hyperventilation: Pharmacologic interven-

tion with morphine sulfate and correlative analysis

of respiratory, sleep, and ocular motor dysfunction.

Neurology 40:1715–1720, 1990.

146. Tobias JD, Heideman RL: Primary central hyper-

ventilation in a child with a brainstem glioma:

Management with continuous intravenous fentanyl.

Pediatrics 88:818–820, 1991.

147. Bohrer H, Fleischer F, Werning P: Tussive effect of

a fentanyl bolus administered through a central

venous catheter. Anaesthesia 45:18–21, 1990.

148. Lin JA, Yeh CC, Lee MS, et al: Prolonged injection

time and light smoking decrease the incidence of

fentanyl-induced cough.AnesthAnalg 101:670–674,

2005.

149. Pandey CK, Raza M, Ranjan R, et al: Intravenous

lidocaine suppresses fentanyl-induced coughing: A

double-blind, prospective, randomized placebo-

controlled study. Anesth Analg 99:1696–1698,

2004.

150. Ruiz Neto PP, Auler Junior JO: Respiratory mecha-

nical properties during fentanyl and alfentanil

anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth 39:458–465, 1992.

151. Sarton E, Teppema L, Dahan A: Sex differences in

morphine-induced ventilatory depression reside

within the peripheral chemoreflex loop. Anesthe-

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152. Smart JA, Pallett EJ, Duthie DJ: Breath interval as a

measure of dynamic opioid effect. Br J Anaesth

84:735–738, 2000.

153. Bailey PL, Streisand JB, East KA, et al: Differences

in magnitude and duration of opioid-induced res-

piratory depression and analgesia with fentanyl and

sufentanil. Anesth Analg 70:8–15, 1990.

154. Glass PS, Iselin-Chaves IA, Goodman D, et al:

Determination of the potency of remifentanil com-

pared with alfentanil using ventilatory depression

as the measure of opioid effect. Anesthesiology

90:1556–1563, 1999.

155. Combes X, Cerf C, Bouleau D, et al: The effects of

residual pain on oxygenation and breathing pattern

during morphine analgesia. Anesth Analg 90:156–

160, 2000.

156. Krenn H, Jellinek H, Haumer H, et al: Naloxone-

resistant respiratory depression and neurological

eye symptoms after intrathecal morphine. Anesth

Analg 91:432–433, 2000.

157. Furst SR, Weinger MB: Dexmedetomidine, a selec-

tive

a

2

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ratory depression of alfentanil in the rat.

Anesthesiology 72:882–888, 1990.

158. Peat SJ, Hanna MH, Woodham M, et al: Morphine-

6-glucuronide: Effects on ventilation in normal

volunteers. Pain 45:101–104, 1991.

159. Robbins GR, Wynands JE, Whalley DG, et al: Phar-

macokinetics of alfentanil and clinical responses

during cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth 37:52–57,

1990.

160. Feldman PD, Parveen N, Sezen S: Cardiovascular

effects of Leu-enkephalin in the nucleus tractus soli-

tarius of the rat. Brain Res 709:331–336, 1996.

161. Keay KA, Crowfoot LJ, Floyd NS, et al: Cardiovas-

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into the ‘Depressor Region’ of the ventrolateral

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162. Zhang CC, Su JY, Calkins D: Effects of alfentanil on

isolated cardiac tissues of the rabbit. Anesth Analg

71:268–274, 1990.

163. Helgesen KG, Ellingsen O, Ilebekk A: Inotropic

effect of meperidine: Influence of receptor and ion

channel blockers in the rat atrium. Anesth Analg

70:499–506, 1990.

164. Nakae Y, Fujita S, Namiki A: Morphine enhances

myofilament Ca

2+

sensitivity in intact guinea pig

beating hearts. Anesth Analg 92:602–608, 2001.

165. Xiao GS, Zhou JJ, Wang GY, et al: In vitro elec-

trophysiologic effects of morphine in rabbit ven-

tricular myocytes. Anesthesiology 103:280–286,

2005.

166. Llobel F, Laorden ML: Effects of morphine on atrial

preparations obtained from nonfailing and failing

human hearts. Br J Anaesth 76:106–110, 1996.

167. Kawakubo A, Fujigaki T, Uresino H, et al: Compa-

rative effects of etomidate, ketamine, propofol, and

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Anesth 13:77–82, 1999.

168. Graham MD, Hopkins PM, Harrison SM: The

effects of alfentanil on cytosolic Ca(2+) and con-

traction in rat ventricular myocytes. Anesth Analg

98:1013–1016, 2004.

Opioides

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Sección

II

Farmacología y anestesia

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