Miller Anestesia

37. Herridge MS: Prognostication and intensive care

unit outcome: The evolving role of scoring systems.

Clin Chest Med 24:751–762, 2003.

38. Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Draper EA, et al: The

APACHE III prognostic system. Risk prediction of

hospital mortality for critically ill hospitalized

adults. Chest 100:1619–1636, 1991.

39. Le Gall JR, Lemeshow S, Saulnier F: A new Simpli-

fied Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) based on a

European/North American multicenter study.

JAMA 270:2957–2963, 1993.

40. Lemeshow S, Teres D, Klar J, et al: Mortality Proba-

bility Models (MPM II) based on an international

cohort of intensive care unit patients. JAMA

270:2478–2486, 1993.

41. Castella X, Artigas A, Bion J, Kari A: A comparison

of severity of illness scoring systems for intensive

care unit patients: Results of a multicenter, multina-

tional study. The European/North American Severity

Study Group. Crit Care Med 23:1327–1335, 1995.

42. Reina A, Vazquez G, Aguayo E, et al: Mortality dis-

crimination in acute myocardial infarction: Compa-

rison between APACHE III and SAPS II prognosis

systems. PAEEC Group. Intensive Care Med 23:326–

330, 1997.

43. Sinuff T, Adhikari NK, Cook DJ, et al: Mortality

predictions in the intensive care unit: Comparing

physicians with scoring systems. Crit Care Med

34:878–885, 2006.

44. Marks RJ, Simons RS, Blizzard RA, Browne DR: Pre-

dicting outcome in intensive therapy units—a com-

parison of APACHE II with subjective assessments.

Intensive Care Med 17:159–163, 1991.

45. Lemeshow S, Klar J, Teres D: Outcome prediction

for individual intensive care patients: Useful,

misused, or abused? Intensive Care Med 21:770–

776, 1995.

46. Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J, et al: The SOFA

(Sepsis-Related Organ Failure Assessment) score to

describe organ dysfunction/failure. On behalf of the

Working Group on Sepsis-Related Problems of the

European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Inten-

sive Care Med 22:707–710, 1996.

47. Marshall JC, Cook DJ, Christou NV, et al: Multiple

Organ Dysfunction Score: A reliable descriptor of a

complex clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 23:1638–

1652, 1995.

48. Vincent JL, Angus DC, Artigas A, et al: Effects of

drotrecogin alfa (activated) on organ dysfunction in

the PROWESS trial. Crit Care Med 31:834–840,

2003.

49. Rangel-Frausto MS, Pittet D, Costigan M, et al: The

natural history of the systemic inflammatory res-

ponse syndrome (SIRS). A prospective study. JAMA

273:117–123, 1995.

50. From the Centers for Disease Control. Increase in

National Hospital Discharge Survey rates for sep-

ticemia—UnitedStates,1979-1987.JAMA263:937–

938, 1990.

51. Lefering R, Neugebauer EA: Steroid controversy in

sepsis and septic shock: A meta-analysis. Crit Care

Med 23:1294–1303, 1995.

52. Cronin L, Cook DJ, Carlet J, et al: Corticosteroid

treatment for sepsis: A critical appraisal and meta-

analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 23:1430–

1439, 1995.

53. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al: Effect of

treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and

fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic

shock. JAMA 288:862–871, 2002.

54. Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B, et al: Reversal of

late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of

hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med 26:645–650, 1998.

55. Briegel J, Forst H, Haller M, et al: Stress doses of

hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock:

A prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-

center study. Crit Care Med 27:723–732, 1999.

56. Abraham E, Evans T: Corticosteroids and septic

shock. JAMA 288:886–887, 2002.

57. Lipiner-Friedman D, Sprung CL, Laterre PF, et al:

Adrenal function in sepsis: The retrospective Corti-

cus cohort study. Crit Care Med 35:1012–1018,

2007.

58. Sprung CL, Annane D, Keh D, et al: Hydrocortisone

therapy for patients with sepsis. N Engl J Med

358:111–124, 2008.

59. Meszaros K, Lang CH, Bagby GJ, Spitzer JJ: Contri-

bution of different organs to increased glucose con-

sumption after endotoxin administration. J Biol

Chem 262:10965–10970, 1987.

60. Cerra FB: Hypermetabolism, organ failure, and

metabolic support. Surgery 101:1–14, 1987.

61. Wolfe RR, Herndon DN, Jahoor F, et al: Effect of

severe burn injury on substrate cycling by glucose

and fatty acids. N Engl J Med 317:403–408, 1987.

62. Wolfe RR, Jahoor F, Herndon DN, Miyoshi H: Isoto-

pic evaluation of the metabolism of pyruvate and

related substrates in normal adult volunteers and

severely burned children: Effect of dichloroacetate

and glucose infusion. Surgery 110:54–67, 1991.

63. Lang CH, Dobrescu C, Meszaros K: Insulin-media-

ted glucose uptake by individual tissues during

sepsis. Metabolism 39:1096–1107, 1990.

64. Mizock BA: Alterations in carbohydrate metabolism

during stress: A review of the literature. Am J Med

98:75–84, 1995.

65. McCowen KC, Malhotra A, Bistrian BR: Stress-in-

duced hyperglycemia. Crit Care Clin 17:107–124,

2001.

66. Perner A, Nielsen SE, Rask-Madsen J: High glucose

impairs superoxide production from isolated blood

neutrophils. Intensive Care Med 29:642–645, 2003.

67. Fietsam R Jr, Bassett J, Glover JL: Complications of

coronary artery surgery in diabetic patients. Am

Surg 57:551–557, 1991.

68. O’Neill PA, Davies I, Fullerton KJ, Bennett D: Stress

hormone and blood glucose response following

acute stroke in the elderly. Stroke 22:842–847,

1991.

69. Scott JF, Robinson GM, French JM, et al: Glucose

potassium insulin infusions in the treatment of

acute stroke patients with mild to moderate hyper-

glycemia: The Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial

(GIST). Stroke 30:793–799, 1999.

70. Malmberg K: Prospective randomised study of

intensive insulin treatment on long term survival

after acute myocardial infarction in patients with

diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus,

Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial

Infarction) Study Group. BMJ 314:1512–1515,

1997.

71. Malmberg K, Ryden L, Efendic S, et al: Randomized

trial of insulin-glucose infusion followed by subcu-

taneous insulin treatment in diabetic patients with

acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI study):

Effects on mortality at 1 year. J Am Coll Cardiol

26:57–65, 1995.

72. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al: Inten-

sive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N

Engl J Med 345:1359–1367, 2001.

73. Satomi N, Sakurai A, Haranaka K: Relationship of

hypoglycemia to tumor necrosis factor production

and antitumor activity: Role of glucose, insulin, and

macrophages. J Natl Cancer Inst 74:1255–1260,

1985.

74. Das UN: Is insulin an antiinflammatory molecule?

Nutrition 17:409–413, 2001.

75. van den Berghe G, Wouters PJ, Bouillon R, et al:

Outcome benefit of intensive insulin therapy in the

critically ill: Insulin dose versus glycemic control.

Crit Care Med 31:359–366, 2003.

76. Finney SJ, Zekveld C, Elia A, Evans TW: Glucose

control and mortality in critically ill patients. JAMA

290:2041–2047, 2003.

77. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al:

Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl

J Med 354:449–461, 2006.

78. Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, et al: Intensive

insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in

severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 358:125–139, 2008.

79. Levi M, Ten Cate H: Disseminated intravascular

coagulation. N Engl J Med 341:586–592, 1999.

80. Vervloet MG, Thijs LG, Hack CE: Derangements of

coagulation and fibrinolysis in critically ill patients

with sepsis and septic shock. SeminThromb Hemost

24:33–44, 1998.

81. Powars DR, Rogers ZR, Patch MJ, et al: Purpura

fulminans in meningococcemia: Association with

acquired deficiencies of proteins C and S. N Engl J

Med 317:571–572, 1987.

82. Esmon CT: The protein C anticoagulant pathway.

Arterioscler Thromb 12:135–145, 1992.

83. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al: Efficacy

and safety of recombinant human activated protein

C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 344:699–709,

2001.

84. Brunkhorst F, Sakr Y, Hagel S, Reinhart K: Protein

C concentrations correlate with organ dysfunction

and predict outcome independent of the presence

of sepsis. Anesthesiology 107:15–23, 2007.

85. Manns BJ, Lee H, Doig CJ, et al: An economic eva-

luation of activated protein C treatment for severe

sepsis. N Engl J Med 347:993–1000, 2002.

86. Carlet J: Prescribing indications based on successful

clinical trials in sepsis: A difficult exercise. Crit Care

Med 34:525–529, 2006.

87. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, Levine BE:

Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 2:319–

323, 1967.

88. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al: The

American-European Consensus Conference on

ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes,

and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit

Care Med 149:818–824, 1994.

89. Luhr OR, Antonsen K, Karlsson M, et al: Incidence

and mortality after acute respiratory failure and

acute respiratory distress syndrome in Sweden,

Denmark, and Iceland. The ARF Study Group. Am

J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1849–1861, 1999.

90. Brower RG, Ware LB, Berthiaume Y, Matthay MA:

Treatment of ARDS. Chest 120:1347–1367, 2001.

91. Suchyta MR, Clemmer TP, Elliott CG, et al: The

adult respiratory distress syndrome. A report of sur-

vival and modifying factors. Chest 101:1074–1079,

1992.

92. Montgomery AB, Stager MA, Carrico CJ, Hudson

LD: Causes of mortality in patients with the adult

respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis

132:485–489, 1985.

93. Milberg JA, Davis DR, Steinberg KP, Hudson LD:

Improved survival of patients with acute respiratory

distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983-1993. JAMA

273:306–309, 1995.

94. Ware LB, Matthay MA: The acute respiratory dis-

tress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342:1334–1349,

2000.

95. Eisner MD, Thompson T, Hudson LD, et al: Efficacy

of low tidal volume ventilation in patients with

different clinical risk factors for acute lung injury

and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J

Respir Crit Care Med 164:231–236, 2001.

96. Gattinoni L, Caironi P, Cressoni M, et al: Lung

recruitment in patients with the acute respiratory

distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 354:1775–1786,

2006.

97. Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N, et al: Higher

versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in

patients with the acute respiratory distress syn-

drome. N Engl J Med 351:327–336, 2004.

98. Gattinoni L, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, et al: Effect of

prone positioning on the survival of patients with

acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 345:568–573,

2001.

99. Gaston B, Drazen JM, Loscalzo J, Stamler JS: The

biology of nitrogen oxides in the airways. Am J

Respir Crit Care Med 149:538–551, 1994.

100. Hart CM: Nitric oxide in adult lung disease. Chest

115:1407–1417, 1999.

101. Doyle MP, Hoekstra JW: Oxidation of nitrogen

oxides by bound dioxygen in hemoproteins. J Inorg

Biochem 14:351–358, 1981.

102. Rossaint R, Gerlach H, Schmidt-Ruhnke H, et al:

Efficacy of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with

severe ARDS. Chest 107:1107–1115, 1995.

103. McIntyre RC Jr, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al: Inhaled

nitric oxide variably improves oxygenation and pul-

monary hypertension in patients with acute respira-

tory distress syndrome. J Trauma 39:418–425,

1995.

Generalidades sobre anestesia y cuidados críticos

2631

Sección VII

Cuidados críticos