20. Lui SS, McDonald SB: Current issues in spinal anes-
thesia. Anesthesiology 94:888, 2001.
21. Hogan QH,Prost R,Taylor ML,et al: Magnetic reso-
nance imaging of cerebrospinal fluid and the
influence of body habitus and abdominal pressure.
Anesthesiology 84:1341, 1996.
22. Carpenter RL, Hogan QH, Lui SS, et al: Lumbosa-
cral cerebrospinal fluid volume is the primary
determinant of sensory block extent and duration
during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 89:24,
1998.
23. Bernards CM, Hill HF: Morphine and alfentanil
permeability through the spinal dura, arachnoid
and pia mater of dogs and monkeys.Anesthesiology
73:1214, 1990.
24. Bernards CM: Sophistry in medicine: Lessons from
the epidural space. Reg Anesth Pain Med 30:56,
2005.
25. Parkinson D: Human spinal arachnoid septa, trabe-
culae, and “rogue strands”. Am J Anat 192:498,
1991.
26. Reina MA, de Leon-Casasola OA, Lopez A, et al: An
in vitro study of dural lesions produced by 25-gauge
Quincke and Whitacre needles evaluated by scan-
ning electron microscopy. Reg Anesth Pain Med
25:393, 2000.
27. Hogan QH: Lumbar epidural anatomy: A new look
by cryomicrotome section. Anesthesiology 75:767,
1991.
28. Igarashi T, Hirabayashi Y, Shimizu R, et al: The
lumbar extradural structure changes with increa-
sing age. Br J Anaesth 78:149, 1997.
29. Saitoh K, Hirabayashi Y, Smimizu R, et al: Extensive
extradural spread in the elderly may not relate to
decreased leakage through intervertebral foramina.
Br J Anaesth 75:688, 1995.
30. Zarzur E: Anatomic studies of the human lumbar
ligamentum flavum. Anesth Analg 63:499, 1984.
31. Santos DJ, Bridenbaugh PO, Heins S, et al: Unilate-
ral epidural analgesia for labor. Reg Anesth 10:41,
1985.
32. Nunn G, Mackinnon RPG: Two unilateral epidural
blocks [letter]. Anesthesia 41:439, 1986.
33. Hogan Q: Distribution of solution in the epidural
space: Examination by cryomicrotome section. Reg
Anesth Pain Med 27:150, 2002.
34. Blomberg R: The dorsomedian connective tissue
band in the lumbar epidural space of humans: An
anatomic study using epiduroscopy in autopsy
cases. Anesth Analg 65:747, 1986.
35. Blomberg RG: The lumbar subdural extra-arach-
noid space of humans: An anatomical study using
spinaloscopy in autopsy cases.Anesth Analg 66:177,
1987.
36. Blomberg RG: Fibrous structures in the subarach-
noid space: A study with spinaloscopy in autopsy
subjects. Anesth Analg 80:875, 1995.
37. Crighton IM, Barry BP, Hobbs GJ: A study of the
anatomy of the caudal space using magnetic reso-
nance imaging. Br J Anaesth 78:391, 1997.
38. Thompson JE: An anatomical and experimental
study of sacral anaesthesia. Ann Surg 66:718, 1917.
39. Trotter M: Variations of the sacral canal: Their sig-
nificance in the administration of caudal anesthesia.
Anesth Analg 26:192, 1947.
40. Mackey DC: Physiologic effects of regional block.
In Brown DL (ed): Regional Anesthesia and Anal-
gesia. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1996, pp 397.
41. Greene NM. In: Physiology of Spinal Anesthesia,,
3rd ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1981.
42. Rooke GA,Freund PR,JacobsonAF: Hemodynamic
response and change in organ blood volume during
spinal anesthesia in elderly men with cardiac
disease. Anesth Analg 85:99, 1997.
43. Stanley GD, Pierce ET, Moore WJ, et al: Spinal anes-
thesia reduces oxygen consumption in diabetic
patients prior to peripheral vascular surgery. Reg
Anesth 22:53, 1997.
44. Kety SS, King BD, Horvath SM, et al: The effects of
an acute reduction in blood pressure by means of
differential spinal sympathetic block on the cerebral
circulation of hypertensive patients. J Clin Invest
29:403, 1950.
45. Kleinerman J, Sancetta SM, Hackel DB: Effects of
high spinal anesthesia on cerebral circulation and
metabolism in man. J Clin Invest 37:285, 1958.
46. Hackel DB,Sancetta S,Kleinerman J: Effect of hypo-
tension due to spinal anesthesia on coronary blood
flow and myocardial metabolism in man. Circula-
tion 13:92, 1956.
47. Sivarajan M, Amory DW, Lindbloom LE, et al: Sys-
temic and regional blood-flow changes during
spinal anesthesia in the rhesus monkey.Anesthesio-
logy 43:78, 1975.
48. Butterworth JF, Piccione W Jr, Berrizbeitia LD, et al:
Augmentation of venous return by adrenergic ago-
nists during spinal anesthesia.Anesth Analg 65:612,
1986.
49. Defalque RJ: Compared effects of spinal and extra-
dural anesthesia upon the blood pressure. Anesthe-
siology 23:627, 1962.
50. Egbert LD, Tamersoy K, Deas TC: Pulmonary
function during spinal anesthesia: The mechanism
of cough depression. Anesthesiology 22:882, 1961.
51. Sakura S, Saito Y, Kosaka Y: The effects of epidural
anesthesia on ventilatory response to hypercapnia
and hypoxia in elderly patients. Anesth Analg
82:306, 1996.
52. Yun E, Topulos GP, Body SC, et al: Pulmonary
function changes during epidural anesthesia for
cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 82:750, 1996.
53. Hogan Q, Amuzu J, Clifford PS, et al: Hypoxia
causes apnea during epidural anesthesia in rabbits.
Anesthesiology 88:761, 1998.
54. Shibata K,TakiY,FutagamiA,et al:Epidural anesthesia
modifies cardiovascular responses to severe hypoxia in
dogs.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 39:748, 1995.
55. Carpenter RL, Caplan RA, Brown DL, et al: Inci-
dence and risk factors for side effects of spinal anes-
thesia. Anesthesiology 76:906, 1992.
56. Ward RJ,KennedyWF,Bonica JJ,et al: Experimental
evaluation of atropine and vasopressors for the
treatment of hypotension of high subarachnoid
anesthesia. Anesth Analg 45:621, 1966.
57. Ramaioli F, De Amici D: Central antiemetic effect
of atropine: Our personal experience [letter]. Can J
Anaesth 43:1079, 1996.
58. Greene NM, Bunker JP, Kerr WS, et al: Hypotensive
spinal anesthesia: Respiratory, metabolic, hepatic,
renal and cerebral effects. Ann Surg 140:641, 1954.
59. Sutcliffe NP, Mostafa SM, Gannon J, et al: The effect
of epidural blockade on gastric intramucosal pH in
the peri-operative period. Anaesthesia 51:37, 1996.
60. SuleimanMY,Passannante AN,Onder RL,et al:Alte-
ration of renal blood flow during epidural anesthesia
in normal subjects. Anesth Analg 84:1076, 1997.
61. Walts LF, Kaufman RD, Moreland JR, et al: Total hip
arthroplasty: An investigation of factors related to
postoperative urinary retention. Clin Orthop Relat
Res 194:280, 1985.
62. Mulroy MF, Salinas FV, Larkin KL, Polissar NL:
Ambulatory surgery patients may be discharged
before voiding after short-acting spinal and epidu-
ral anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 97:315, 2002.
63. Cassuto J,Wallin G, Högström S, et al: Inhibition of
postoperative pain by continuous low-dose intrave-
nous infusion of lidocaine. Anesth Analg 64:971,
1985.
64. McMahon D: Managing regional anesthesia equip-
ment. Probl Anesth 1:592, 1987.
65. Ready LB, Cuplin S, Haschke RH, et al: Spinal
needle determinants of rate of transdural fluid leak.
Anesth Analg 69:457, 1989.
66. Taylor JA: Lumbosacral subarachnoid tap. J Urol
43:561, 1940.
67. Covino BG, Scott DB: Handbook of Epidural Anes-
thesia andAnalgesia.Orlando,FL,Grune & Stratton,
1985.
68. Puolakka R, Pitkanen MT, Rosenberg PH: Compa-
rison of three catheter sets for continuous spinal
anesthesia in patients undergoing total hip or knee
arthroplasty. Reg Anesth Pain Med 25:584, 2000.
69. Hodgson PS, Lui SS, Batra MS, et al: Procaine com-
pared to lidocaine for incidence of transient neuro-
logic symptoms. Reg Anesth Pain Med 25:218, 2000.
70. Douglas MJ: Neurotoxicity of lidocaine—does it
exist [editorial]? Can J Anaesth 42:181, 1995.
71. Lui S, Pollock JE, Mulroy MF, et al: Comparison of
5% with dextrose, 1.5% with dextrose, and 1.5%
dextrose-free lidocaine solutions for spinal anesthe-
sia in human volunteers. Anesth Analg 81:697,
1995.
72. Hampl KF,Schneider MC,Pargger H,et al:A similar
incidence of transient neurologic symptoms after
spinal anesthesia with 2% and 5% lidocaine.Anesth
Analg 83:1051, 1996.
73. Pollock JE, Lui SS, Neal JM, Stephenson CA: Dilu-
tion of spinal lidocaine does not alter the incidence
of transient neurologic symptoms. Anesthesiology
90:445, 1999.
74. Pollock JE, Burkhead D, Neal JM, et al: Spinal nerve
function in five volunteers experiencing transient
neurologic symptoms after lidocaine subarachnoid
anesthesia. Anesth Analg 90:658, 2000.
75. Zaric D, Christiansen C, Pace NL, Punjasawadwong
Y: Transient neurologic symptoms (TNS) following
spinal anaesthesia with lidocaine versus other local
anaesthetics. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
4:CD003006, 2005.
76. Liguori GA, Zayas VM, Chisholm MF: Transient
neurologic symptoms after spinal anesthesia with
mepivacaine and lidocaine. Anesthesiology 88:619,
1998.
77. Zayas VM, Liguori GA, Chisholm MF: Dose res-
ponse relationships for isobaric spinal mepivacaine
using the combined spinal epidural technique.
Anesth Analg 89:1167, 1999.
78. Moore DC, Chadwick HS, Ready LB: Epinephrine
prolongs lidocaine spinal: Pain in the operative site
is the most accurate method of determining local
anesthetic duration. Anesthesiology 67:416, 1987.
79. Smith HS, Carpenter RL, Bridenbaugh LD: Failure
rate of tetracaine spinal anesthesia with and without
epinephrine [abstract]. Anesthesiology 65:A193,
1986.
80. Abouleish EI: Epinephrine improves the quality of
spinal anesthesia of bupivacaine [abstract]. Anes-
thesiology 65:A375, 1986.
81. Caldwell C, Nielsen C, Baltz T, et al: Comparison of
high-dose epinephrine and phenylephrine in spinal
anesthesia with tetracaine. Anesthesiology 62:804,
1985.
82. Kozody R, Palahniuk RJ, Cumming MO: Spinal
cord blood flow following subarachnoid tetracaine.
Can J Anaesth 32:23, 1985.
83. Logan MR, McClure JH, Wildsmith JAW: Plain
bupivacaine: An unpredictable spinal anaesthetic
agent. Br J Anaesth 58:292, 1986.
84. Tuominen M: Bupivacaine spinal anaesthesia. Acta
Anaesthiol Scand 35:1, 1991.
85. Moore DC: Spinal anesthesia: Bupivacaine compa-
red with tetracaine. Anesth Analg 59:743, 1980.
1402
Control de la anestesia
III